Les erreurs de l'occident, par Alexander Solzhenitsyn

This is the French edition of Mortal Danger.

Winter Is Coming, by Garry Kasparov

I'm old enough to remember watching the demonstrations and other events associated with the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, but my understanding of what followed (the presidency of Boris Yeltsin, the rise of Vladimir Putin and his stand-in Dmitri Medvedev, aggression in Georgia, the Ukraine, and other places), has been quite sketchy. So I'm glad someone in my history book group suggested this for a book of the month selection. It's very informative about Russian political developments from the 1990's to the mid 2010's and really helped me to make sense of them.

The Russian Question, by Alexander Solzhenitsyn

I learned a lot about Russian history reading this book. It's divided into two parts.

The first is an essay written in 1994, just a few years after the fall of the Soviet government, in which Solzhenitsyn poses an important question to the Russian people: To be or not to be? Meaning: Are the Russian people going to take this opportunity to fulfill their potential given the lessons of their history or not?  And he gives a quick summary of the successes and failures of the various Tsars from the start of the Romanov dynasty in the 1600's to Nicholas II and on through Soviet times.  He shows how the Tsars hampered Russia's progress by their ineptitude in foreign affairs, their propensity to get involved in European quarrels unnecessarily, coupled with a very centralized power structure and a lack of understanding of how to encourage development of their already huge territory and its people. Then the Soviets made things worse by sacrificing the country and its people to a deadly ideology that it was their goal to spread abroad.

The second part is a speech Solzhenitsyn delivered in 1993 to the International Philosophical Society in Liechtenstein about the need to reclaim moral clarity, the application of moral standards in politics, instead of utilitarian or legalistic ones, and, in personal life, the need for self restraint and the recognition that there is more to life than material well being.  Many of these themes he also covers in The 1978 Harvard Commencement Address.

The Origin of Russian Communism, by Nicolas Berdyaev

Excellent book on the various influences in Russian history, culture, and religion that helped shape how Communism was implemented in the Soviet Union. 

Berdyaev cites the Muscovite period and the reign of Peter the Great as particularly influential, because that was when the governments were most absolutist and repressive, using methods to control the population and the church that prefigured those used by the Bolsheviks. 

He cites the messianic cast of mind of the Russian Orthodox Church, which thought of Moscow as the Third Rome (after the fall of the Roman and Byzantine Empires) and believed that it had a great mission to fulfill in the world. Similarly, Soviet Russia took upon itself a special mission: it was the means by which communism was to be spread throughout the world. 

Berdyaev also discusses how the Russian Orthodox peasantry, unlike their Western Christian counterparts, never developed a strong concept of private property. They saw the land and its resources as belonging to God, and anyone who works them ought to be able to make a living off them. They had a feeling that the gentry were wrong to have such large estates, so that when the Bolsheviks began confiscating the estates and turning them into collective farms, the peasants were easily sold on the idea. 

Berdyaev himself was a disenchanted Marxist who converted back to the Russian Orthodox Church. He was among the exiles in the “philosophers’ ships” of the 1920’s, when Lenin threw out much of Russia’s dissident intelligentsia. Unfortunately, despite his disappointment with Marxism, Berdyaev did retain (at least at the time he wrote this book—I don’t know about later in life) the same mistake to which some Christians are prone: the view that socialism is a more moral economic system than the free market, and that there must be some way to make it work without resorting to evil means or evil results. 

Nos pluralistes, by Alexander Solzhenitsyn

Alexander Solzhenitsyn criticizes the moral emptiness of pluralism and its impotence when faced with the evils of socialism. He also criticizes the work of some of his fellow Soviet exiles, who blame the failures of socialism on the defects of the Russian people and their culture, rather than on the nature of socialism itself. 

This book is an excerpt from a longer work, The Oak and the Calf, and I did find parts of it difficult to follow because I am not familiar with the work of the people Solzhenitsyn cites, but it was a worthwhile read nonetheless.  Maybe reading it as part of The Oak and the Calf would provide more context.

Moscou sans voiles, by Joseph Douillet

The author, Joseph Douillet, is a Belgian citizen who spent thirty five years living in Russia—first as Belgian consul when the tsar was still in power, then with humanitarian organizations that set up in the USSR to help alleviate the effects of the economic problems and famine caused by increasing nationalization of the factories and farms after the October Revolution. The timing of his career, the positions he held, his fluency and familiarity with the Russian language and culture put him in a perfect position to observe the transition from tsarist to Soviet Russia and to draw comparisons between the two. If there was any historical event that proved that not all change is for the better (to put it mildly), this is it. 

It is a very well organized book that details the effects Communism had on different aspects of life. He starts off with how the USSR presents itself to foreigners, which is like a type of theater. Then he moves on to discussing Communism’s effects on the working and living conditions of peasants and factory workers: the level of their earnings, prices and availability of necessities, use of taxes to disadvantage disfavored groups, the educational system, the disintegration of marriage and family, illegitimacy, crime rates, treatment of people at the beginning and at the end of life, treatment of religious people, confiscation of church property, and the omnipresent surveillance of the secret police, whose power surpassed even that of the Politburo. He even spent 9 months in KGB custody at the Loubianka prison in Moscow prior to being deported to Latvia in 1925, so the later chapters are about his experiences in that jail, the effects of torture and interrogations on fellow inmates, their various fates--often deportation to gulags in Siberia or Solovetzky Island, or execution in the prison compound itself. The last chapter is about the Comintern, the Party’s foreign outreach and propaganda arm, whose aim was to spread the movement in Europe. 

My edition is dated 1928, so this was written soon after being expelled from the USSR. There does not seem to be an English translation, so this book is only accessible to French speakers. Great read for those interested in Russian and Cold War history. I’m surprised at how early this book appeared (just 11 years after the October Revolution), as I had the impression that information about the real conditions inside the USSR took longer to become known in the West.

Karl Marx As a Religious Type: His Relation to the Religion of Anthropotheism of L. Feuerbach, by Sergei Bulgakov

Since this is the centenary year of the Russian Revolution, I've been trying to read more about the history of that time and the people who were involved or contributed to it in some way. Karl Marx, as the originator of Marxism, was definitely an intellectual contributor to it. 

In this short book, Russian Orthodox priest and philosopher Sergei Bulgakov analyzes the personality and background of Karl Marx based on his writings and the writings of Marx's contemporaries, and Marx's impact on the socialist movement. Bulgakov was a contemporary of Lenin rather than Marx; he was himself a Marxist in his youth and later returned to and was ordained in his faith. Bulgakov points out how important atheism, the materialist worldview, and the elimination of religion were to Marx (i.e. it was the main feature, not a side show). Marx saw socialism as a means to eliminate religion, rather than elimination of religion being a side effect of socialism eliminating poverty. Among other topics, Bulgakov also cites evidence of Marx's dictatorial and vindictive personality as observed by writings of his contemporaries and his treatment of them, his greater affinity for the ideas of Feuerbach rather than Hegel, and his attitude towards his own ancestral people, the Jews.

This book is available online here.

Réflexions sur la révolution de Février, par Alexander Solzhenitsyn

In this book, Solzhenitsyn analyzes the toxic mix of conditions that brought about the events and consequences of three fateful days in St. Petersburg, from February 28-March 2, 1917 by the Julian calendar, or March 13-15, 2017 by the Gregorian.  Because of an insurrection in St. Petersburg, Czar Nicholas II abdicated the throne in favor of his brother Grand Duke Michael, who was equally disinclined to fulfill the obligations emperor.  Solzhenitsyn discusses how conditions, which only affected a small number of people, combined to destroy an enormous country, the majority of whose population were still attached to their traditions, their religion, and their way of life.  These include a lack of responsibility and sense of duty on the part of the royal family and government officials, the intelligentsia’s embrace of radical politics and revolutionary ideas, bad management of the military (which led to large numbers of inexperienced new recruits sitting idle in St. Petersburg), and the incompetence of the Kerensky government that replaced the monarchy.  Thus the Russian empire fell, not because of tyranny or high-handedness on the part of the Czar, but from weakness and lack of leadership.

The Mortal Danger, by Alexander Solzhenitsyn

This book consists of a long essay Solzhenitsyn wrote in 1980 for <i>Foreign Affairs</i> magazine, some reaction letters from readers (mostly university professors) and Solzhenitsyn's rebuttal to the letters.  I liked the format because it shows both sides of the issue and you get the back-and-forth of a debate.

The essay addresses an important question, especially for those who think real Communism hasn't been tried yet because it's always been adulterated by the local history and traditions of the countries where it was implemented.  Did the mass murders, oppressive policies, and other negative features of the Soviet government have their roots in some evil tendency from Russia's tsarist past which re-emerged under Stalin, or does the evil reside in Communism itself? Solzhenitsyn argues the latter position, pointing out the intellectual roots of Bolshevism and misconceptions about both 19th century Russia, often presented as worse than it really was, and Lenin's government, often presented as the antithesis to Stalin, when Stalin was just continuing the same policies.

The letter-writers cite, among other things, Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Great, and some of the features of Nicholas II's reign as providing precedent for oppression, and Solzhenitsyn shows why their arguments are implausible or based on a mistaken interpretation of historical facts.

Very interesting reading for those interested in the Cold War and for those who are puzzled about how an economic system with an awful track record every place it's been tried still attracts supporters.

At a Century's Ending, by George F. Kennan

This book is a collection of essays, articles, and speeches written by historian George F. Kennan in the 80's and 90's at the tail end of the Cold War. He was in the U.S. Foreign Service from the 1920's to the post WW2 era and even served briefly as American ambassador to the USSR. His views on the USSR, Eastern and Central Europe, the Cold War, American foreign policy, and the sometimes baleful effects of the American political process on foreign policy are very interesting, sometimes surprising. Great read for those interested in Cold War history. Also particularly educational for people who may have lived through the 80's or 90's as children, vaguely remember newscasts and commentary about these events but weren't old enough to understand much of it. I learned a lot reading this book. Since each chapter is a self-contained article or speech, the book lends itself well to reading in short spurts, and the chapters don't have to be read in order.

Lettres de Russie en 1839 (Letters from Russia), by Astolphe de Custine

This book is an account of the observations and thoughts of an astute 19th century French aristocrat during his trip to Russia. It is part travelogue, part the telling of anecdotes (historical and contemporary),and part an exposition of conclusions drawn by the author based on his observations (which are the most interesting part of the book).

Russia at the time was in the process of liberalization to bring itself closer culturally, politically, and economically to the rest of Europe, but the traces of its history under Mongol rule, feudalism and the absolute monarchy of the czars, were obvious and jarring to an observer not used to them.  These were the aspects of Russia Custine emphasized in his book.  This made the book understandably unwelcome particularly to more liberal-minded Russians who were trying to reform their country and improve its image abroad.  The book proved prophetic, however, when Russia fell back into her old habits after the Bolshevik takeover.

For a better grasp of the author's background, the audience for whom he wrote, and the book's place in history I recommend George F. Kennan's <i> The Marquis de Custine and His Russia in 1839</i> as a companion book.

Warning to the West, by Alexander Solzhenitsyn

This book consists of four speeches and one BBC interview given by Solzhenitsyn to American and British audiences during the mid 1970's.  In them, he talks about his observations about dangerous tendencies in Western culture and intellectual climate that could lead to weakness and lack of preparedness to face the Communist threat.  Among them are the West's refusal to recognize the true nature of Communism despite straightforward exposition of it, lack of moral clarity, a materialist view of the world and of human nature, unwillingness to take a strong stance against the threat, and lack of interest in the plight of its victims.  He also points out some trends in the culture of that time (which are still trends today) that mirror conditions in imperial Russia before the Revolution.

I think this book is still very relevant today because even though the Cold War is over, we're not through with totalitarian movements yet, as can be seen in the destructive Islamist movements in the Middle East.  Solzhenitsyn points out that the temptation to create heaven on earth no matter what the cost is a recurring theme throughout history, and we must be in constant vigilance to guard against it.

Astolphe de Custine and His Russia, by George F. Kennan

This is an excellent review of Astolphe de Custine's <i>Russia in 1839</i> and the times in which it was written. I read it right after <i>Russia in 1839</i> and it was very helpful as I knew nothing about Custine and it was the first book of his I had read.  George Kennan gives a very well-balanced amount of information in his book such that the reader gets a thorough overview of the context in which <i>Russia in 1839</i> was written.

Included is biographical information about the author, a French aristocrat who had lived through the French Revolution as a child, the social milieu in which he lived in Paris, as well as a short exposition of where Russia was in its history when Custine visited, and the reaction to his book in France and in Russia when it came out in the 1840's.

Kennan was a historian who served briefly as U.S. ambassador to the USSR during the Cold War and his thoughts about what Custine observed--reactionary traits that were on their way out under the 19th century Czars but that came back with a vengeance under the Soviets--are chilling.

Also interesting is Kennan's comparison of <i>Russia in 1839</i> with Alexis de Tocqueville's <i>Democracy in America</i>. The two authors were contemporaries, both keen observers, both liberal-minded French aristocrats, and between them they made prophetic speculations about the two countries that emerged as superpowers in the century that followed.

The Case for Democracy, by Natan Sharansky

Natan Sharansky, an erstwhile political prisoner in the Soviet Union, writes about how to accurately tell a free society from a "fear" society (one in which people do not enjoy basic liberties and are kept in check by their leaders through fear of punishment). He makes a good case for why it is in the interest of free societies to conduct their foreign policy in such a way as to link benefits granted to fear societies with requirements that the fear society reform its domestic practices.

Fear societies tend to be poorer and less innovative than free ones, so they often need aid, technology, and other things from free societies, but two of the ways they keep their population in check is 1) to distribute the benefits received so as to keep their population dependent on the dictator's good graces and 2) to present the free society to their people as an enemy in order to produce a state of internal solidarity and hostility against it (as if there were a war going on). Appeasement of dictators is therefore counterproductive as it leads to a vicious circle of increasing their power, aggravating tensions between the countries, and further appeasement by the free society.

It was particularly interesting to read this book shortly after George Kennan's At a Century's Ending: Reflections, 1982-1995 because Kennan has a more traditional view on foreign policy, i.e. stay out of other countries' domestic policy and just concern yourself with their foreign policy. Sharansky uses the relations between the US and USSR during the Cold War and the (seemingly endless) Israeli-Palestinian peace process as examples to illustrate why the traditional approach doesn't work when dealing with fear societies.